In November 1519, Hernando Cortés walked along a causeway leading to the capital of the Aztec kingdom and came face to face with Moctezuma. That story--and the story of what happened afterwards--has been told many times, but always following the narrative offered by the Spaniards. After all, we have been taught, it was the Europeans who held the pens. But the Native Americans were intrigued by the Roman alphabet and, unbeknownst to the newcomers, they used it to write detailed histories in their own language of Nahuatl. Until recently, these sources remained obscure, only partially translated, and rarely consulted by scholars.

For the first time, in Fifth Sun, the history of the Aztecs is offered in all its complexity based solely on the texts written by the indigenous people themselves. Camilla Townsend presents an accessible and humanized depiction of these native Mexicans, rather than seeing them as the exotic, bloody figures of European stereotypes. The conquest, in this work, is neither an apocalyptic moment, nor an origin story launching Mexicans into existence. The Mexica people had a history of their own long before the Europeans arrived and did not simply capitulate to Spanish culture and colonization. Instead, they realigned their political allegiances, accommodated new obligations, adopted new technologies, and endured.

This engaging revisionist history of the Aztecs, told through their own words, explores the experience of a once-powerful people facing the trauma of conquest and finding ways to survive, offering an empathetic interpretation for experts and non-specialists alike.

In November 1519, Hernando Cortés walked along a causeway leading to the capital of the Aztec kingdom and came face to face with Moctezuma. That story--and the story of what happened afterwards--has been told many times, but always following the narrative offered by the Spaniards. After all, we have been taught, it was the Europeans who held the pens. But the Native Americans were intrigued by the Roman alphabet and, unbeknownst to the newcomers, they used it to write detailed histories in their own language of Nahuatl. Until recently, these sources remained obscure, only partially translated, and rarely consulted by scholars.

For the first time, in Fifth Sun, the history of the Aztecs is offered in all its complexity based solely on the texts written by the indigenous people themselves. Camilla Townsend presents an accessible and humanized depiction of these native Mexicans, rather than seeing them as the exotic, bloody figures of European stereotypes. The conquest, in this work, is neither an apocalyptic moment, nor an origin story launching Mexicans into existence. The Mexica people had a history of their own long before the Europeans arrived and did not simply capitulate to Spanish culture and colonization. Instead, they realigned their political allegiances, accommodated new obligations, adopted new technologies, and endured.

This engaging revisionist history of the Aztecs, told through their own words, explores the experience of a once-powerful people facing the trauma of conquest and finding ways to survive, offering an empathetic interpretation for experts and non-specialists alike.

When most people think of ancient American civilizations, the Aztec, Maya, or Inca cultures probably come to mind immediately, because the societies in Mesoamerica and South America left behind permanent structures for millions of visitors from around the world to see each year. But in fact, there were people inhabiting the region over 11,000 years earlier.

The discovery of distinct arrow tips throughout the United States, Canada, and parts of northern Mexico in the early 20th century, often referred to by archaeologists as projectile points, is a testament to the success of the Paleolithic culture, now known as Clovis. Modern scholars point to the extensive nature of Clovis archaeological sites as proof of its importance, yet these same scholars have only begun to uncover this culture, and as they do, more questions are raised than there are answers. Although most of the questions are not controversial, some of the answers scholars have forwarded are.

Any examination of the Clovis culture begins with what is known. Archaeologists know the approximate chronological and geographic range of the Clovis culture, and they can identify what made the Clovis people unique. These were the projectile points the Clovis people made, setting them apart from most people that came before and after them, and it was those same tools that made them a successful people for such an extended period in the harsh climate of the Upper Paleolithic era (50,000 to 12,000 years ago). Scholars have also determined that the Clovis people were big game hunters, chasing and killing mammoths and other now-extinct animals across North America. The picture that has emerged of the Clovis people is one of an industrious, resourceful, and prolific people who became masters of the environment and North America for approximately 2,000 years. That being said, there is also much that is not known about the Clovis culture.

Academically speaking, there is probably more that is not known about the Clovis people than what is known. For example, the Clovis people's religious ideas, particularly about their views on an afterlife, remain a mystery. The lack of art at Clovis sites has also raised more questions, including if it was the result of a dearth of materials or societal norms and taboos, but perhaps the most hotly debated question surrounding the Clovis culture is its origins. It was once believed the Clovis people were the first to inhabit the Americas, but new evidence appears to suggest they were not. Studies have also questioned how the Clovis people arrived in North America, with the standard crossing of the Ice Age land bridge in Beringia being questioned in favor of other migration theories. An examination of the Clovis culture reveals just how important these Paleolithic people were to the history of North America, and although many questions remain, perhaps steps can be made toward answering a few of them.

In North America, from about 1000-1500 CE, an equally complex culture formed along the banks of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio Rivers. From Red Wing, Minnesota to Greenhouse, Louisiana, and from Spiro, Oklahoma to Macon, Georgia, societies built impressive mound structures that served as ritual platforms, burial sites, and residences for the elites. These mounds also served as the focal points of urban areas of varying sizes that were connected to each other through trade and ideology, forming a culture that modern historians have since designated the Mississippian culture.
Given Europe's familiarity with the Mesoamerican civilizations and lack of knowledge about North America, when white settlers first came upon the giant mounds and earthworks dotting the North American landscape in the 17th and 18th centuries, they couldn't imagine that the local natives were capable of such advanced technology and masterful engineering.

When Spaniards invaded their realm in 1532, the Incas ruled the largest empire of the pre-Columbian Americas. Just over a century earlier, military campaigns began to extend power across a broad swath of the Andean region, bringing local societies into new relationships with colonists and officials who represented the Inca state. With Cuzco as its capital, the Inca empire encompassed a multitude of peoples of diverse geographic origins and cultural traditions dwelling in the outlying provinces and frontier regions. Bringing together an international group of well-established scholars and emerging researchers, this handbook is dedicated to revealing the origins of this empire, as well as its evolution and aftermath. Chapters break new ground using innovative multidisciplinary research from the areas of archaeology, ethnohistory and art history.

The scope of this handbook is comprehensive. It places the century of Inca imperial expansion within a broader historical and archaeological context, and then turns from Inca origins to the imperial political economy and institutions that facilitated expansion. Provincial and frontier case studies explore the negotiation and implementation of state policies and institutions, and their effects on the communities and individuals that made up the bulk of the population. Several chapters describe religious power in the Andes, as well as the special statuses that staffed the state religion, maintained records, served royal households, and produced fine craft goods to support state activities.

The Incas did not disappear in 1532, and the volume continues into the Colonial and later periods, exploring not only the effects of the Spanish conquest on the lives of the indigenous populations, but also the cultural continuities and discontinuities. Moving into the present, the volume ends will an overview of the ways in which the image of the Inca and the pre-Columbian past is memorialized and reinterpreted by contemporary Andeans.

The Indigenous nations of the valley of the Rio Grande that is now centered upon Ojinaga, Chihuahua, and Presidio, Texas--the La Junta valley in colonial times--had a long and unique history with Hispanics during the colonial period.

Their valley was the initial route to New Mexico and West Texas explored by Spanish conquistadors in the 1500s. In the mid-1600s, the Juntans began engaging in long-distance migrant labor in Nueva Vizcaya, and in the 1680s they began inviting Franciscan missionaries and serving as important military allies to Hispanic troops.

Yet for seventy-five years only the missionaries, without any Hispanic military or civilians, lived among them, due to both the remoteness of their valley from Hispanic settlements and the Juntans' insistence upon their autonomy. This is unique in Spanish colonial annals on the northern frontier of New Spain.

This detailed research study adds much new information and many corrections to the rare previous studies.

Unveil the beauty and cultural significance of El Dia de Los Muertos in this vivid exploration of the Day of the Dead. Author E. Caballero guides you through the rich history, symbolism, and regional variations of this cherished Mexican tradition. Discover the art, rituals, and spirit of a celebration that honors life, embraces mortality, and pays heartfelt tribute to the departed.Whether you're a passionate aficionado of Mexican culture or simply curious about this enchanting tradition, this book is your gateway to a world of color, emotion, and reverence. Join us in honoring the departed and illuminating the Day of the Dead like never before

Step back in time and explore the captivating world of Cahokia, an ancient city that once thrived at the heart of the Mississippian civilization. In this meticulously researched and comprehensive book, we journey through the history, culture, and legacy of this enigmatic pre-Columbian metropolis.

Cahokia: The Rise and Fall of an Ancient American City delves into the remarkable rise and flourishing of Cahokia, situated in the lush landscapes of present-day Illinois. Through the lens of archaeology, history, and interdisciplinary research, readers will gain a profound understanding of this sophisticated urban center.

Uncover the mysteries of Cahokia's social organization, where hierarchical structures and political governance shaped the everyday lives of its inhabitants. Discover the significance of trade networks, commerce, and economic activities that contributed to Cahokia's prosperity and regional influence.

Immerse yourself in the spiritual beliefs and religious practices of the Cahokian people, as we explore the sacred sites, rituals, and cosmological connections that bound the community together. Learn about the cultural expressions, symbolism, and artistic traditions that reveal the aesthetics and beliefs of this vibrant civilization.

Trace the decline of Cahokia and the debates surrounding its enigmatic fall, investigating the potential factors that led to its transformation over time. Follow the enduring legacy of Cahokia on later Native American cultures and modern society, as we contemplate the impact of this ancient metropolis on the broader historical tapestry.

This book sheds light on the diverse and vibrant world of Cahokia. Journey through time and explore the complexities, achievements, and resilience of a civilization that remains a testament to the rich cultural heritage of the Americas.

Popol Vuh: The Mythic and Heroic Sagas of the Kiches of Central America is a book written by Lewis Spence. It is a translation of the sacred text of the K'iche' people of Guatemala, which tells the creation story and the history of the K'iche' people. The book is divided into three parts, the first of which describes the creation of the world and the birth of the gods. The second part tells the story of the hero twins, Hunahpu and Xbalanque, who defeat the lords of the underworld and bring about the creation of humans. The third part is a history of the K'iche' people, including their wars and conquests. The book provides a fascinating insight into the mythology and culture of the K'iche' people, and is essential reading for anyone interested in Mesoamerican history and culture.1908. The Popol Vuh is the new world's richest mythological mine. It has been neglected because of the unthinking strictures passed upon its authenticity. That other manuscripts exist in Guatemala is probable. The only records of the faith of the builders of the mystic ruined and deserted cities of Central America should be recovered.This scarce antiquarian book is a facsimile reprint of the old original and may contain some imperfections such as library marks and notations. Because we believe this work is culturally important, we have made it available as part of our commitment for protecting, preserving, and promoting the world's literature in affordable, high quality, modern editions, that are true to their original work.

Popol Vuh is a collection of mythic and heroic sagas from the Kiches, an indigenous people of Central America. The book is translated and compiled by Lewis Spence, a Scottish author and folklorist who specializes in mythology and the supernatural. Popol Vuh is considered one of the most important works of Mesoamerican literature and provides insight into the beliefs and culture of the Kiches. The book tells the creation story of the world and the origin of humanity, as well as the adventures of the hero twins Hunahpu and Xbalanque, who defeat the lords of the underworld and bring order to the world. The text is rich in symbolism and imagery, and offers a glimpse into the complex cosmology and spirituality of the Kiches. Spence's translation and commentary provide context and background information on the stories, making this book a valuable resource for anyone interested in Mesoamerican mythology and culture.1908. The Popol Vuh is the new world's richest mythological mine. It has been neglected because of the unthinking strictures passed upon its authenticity. That other manuscripts exist in Guatemala is probable. The only records of the faith of the builders of the mystic ruined and deserted cities of Central America should be recovered.This scarce antiquarian book is a facsimile reprint of the old original and may contain some imperfections such as library marks and notations. Because we believe this work is culturally important, we have made it available as part of our commitment for protecting, preserving, and promoting the world's literature in affordable, high quality, modern editions, that are true to their original work.

Suma y narración de los incas, de Juan de Betanzos, narra de forma directa la historia de las culturas de los territorios andinos y el encuentro con los españoles. Fue escrita en el Cuzco alrededor de 1551, muy pocos años después de haber sido conquistado el Imperio inca, a partir de los testimonios orales de ancianos que guardaban la memoria del pasado.

Se considera que Suma y narración de los incas es una de las primeras obras de carácter indigenista. Contiene datos precisos y con mucha información sobre las costumbres propias del dominio inca porque Betanzos estaba casado con la princesa Cuiritnay OcIlo, esposa principal de Atahualpa, lo cual le proporcionó a Betanzos un enorme prestigio entre los nobles incas, en especial los del linaje de Atahualpa.

Juan de Betanzos fue uno de los pocos conquistadores españoles que logró aprender el quechua, lengua oficial del Imperio inca. Ello le sirvió para ser el intérprete y mano derecha de Francisco Pizarro. Gracias a ello, y a su matrimonio logró granjearse la amistad de gran parte de la nobleza incaica.

Sin lugar a dudas, el cronista fue un nexo entre el pueblo Inca y la España de su tiempo, al ser pariente político de los nobles cuzqueños y dominar su idioma.

Desde las primeras páginas se advierte que Juan de Betanzos conoció muy de cerca los hechos acaecidos en el enorme territorio andino, pues comienza por establecer la genealogía de los reyes incas y después su cosmogonía, que según la tradición tiene orígenes divinos; tras lo cual expone los acontecimientos bélicos-expansivos, llevados a cabo por la etnia cuzqueña, a partir de los primeros monarcas. Ahora bien, como lo que realmente le interesaba al autor era el mundo incaico, en la última parte de la obra, encauza nuevamente su narración hacia el último descendiente de la monarquía, Manco Inca.

La presente edición de la Suma y narración de los incas se basa en la de Marcos Jiménez de la Espada y contiene las notas de este destacado editor.

Aunque Francisco López de Gómara nunca estuvo en América, la Historia General de las Indias y conquista de México (1552), fue muy difundida en su época. Los hechos le fueron contados por el propio Cortés y otros expedicionarios. La Historia general de las Indias es una auténtica sucesión pormenorizada de aquellos acontecimientos, una crónica ordenada y bien insertada en la historia, escrita con estilo elegante, y llena de citas de los clásicos; una exaltación épica de Hernán Cortés, al estilo de Plutarco. Respecto a los indígenas, su punto de vista fue el oficial, opuesto al de fray Bartolomé de las Casas.

La presente edición incluye un prólogo de Jorge Gurría Lacroix.

This work has been selected by scholars as being culturally important, and is part of the knowledge base of civilization as we know it.

This work is in the public domain in the United States of America, and possibly other nations. Within the United States, you may freely copy and distribute this work, as no entity (individual or corporate) has a copyright on the body of the work.

Scholars believe, and we concur, that this work is important enough to be preserved, reproduced, and made generally available to the public. We appreciate your support of the preservation process, and thank you for being an important part of keeping this knowledge alive and relevant.

This work has been selected by scholars as being culturally important, and is part of the knowledge base of civilization as we know it.

This work is in the public domain in the United States of America, and possibly other nations. Within the United States, you may freely copy and distribute this work, as no entity (individual or corporate) has a copyright on the body of the work.

Scholars believe, and we concur, that this work is important enough to be preserved, reproduced, and made generally available to the public. We appreciate your support of the preservation process, and thank you for being an important part of keeping this knowledge alive and relevant.

This work has been selected by scholars as being culturally important, and is part of the knowledge base of civilization as we know it.

This work is in the public domain in the United States of America, and possibly other nations. Within the United States, you may freely copy and distribute this work, as no entity (individual or corporate) has a copyright on the body of the work.

Scholars believe, and we concur, that this work is important enough to be preserved, reproduced, and made generally available to the public. We appreciate your support of the preservation process, and thank you for being an important part of keeping this knowledge alive and relevant.

This work has been selected by scholars as being culturally important, and is part of the knowledge base of civilization as we know it.

This work is in the public domain in the United States of America, and possibly other nations. Within the United States, you may freely copy and distribute this work, as no entity (individual or corporate) has a copyright on the body of the work.

Scholars believe, and we concur, that this work is important enough to be preserved, reproduced, and made generally available to the public. We appreciate your support of the preservation process, and thank you for being an important part of keeping this knowledge alive and relevant.

This book has been considered by academicians and scholars of great significance and value to literature. This forms a part of the knowledge base for future generations. So that the book is never forgotten we have represented this book in a print format as the same form as it was originally first published. Hence any marks or annotations seen are left intentionally to preserve its true nature.

Durante el periodo prehispanico, la costa norte del Peru contemplo el desarrollo de numerosas sociedades con ricas producciones artesanales, como las de las poblaciones Viru-Gallinazo y Mochica que coexistieron durante el primer milenio de nuestra era. En esta region, el analisis de las formas y decoraciones de la ceramica ha permitido constituir la secuencia cronologica comunmente aceptada, que convierte a las poblaciones Viru-Gallinazo y Mochica en dos sociedades rivales y contemporaneas. Sin embargo, poco se conoce sobre la naturaleza de su relacion. Las investigaciones que se presentan se centraron en documentar las tradiciones alfareras Viru-Gallinazo y Mochica para entender sus origenes, filiaciones y contactos. Este trabajo consistio en el estudio de los modos de elaboracion de las ceramicas arqueologicas halladas en mas de nueve sitios de la region, conservados en el Ministerio de Cultura peruano y en diversos museos peruanos, franceses y estadounidenses. Siguiendo los principios del analisis tecnologico de la ceramica, una metodologia innovadora para los Andes, se estudiaron las huellas de manufactura visibles en la ceramica para reconstruir las tecnicas utilizadas en todas las etapas de su produccion. Esta investigacion permitio comprobar que estas poblaciones tenian cada una sus propias tradiciones tecnicas para elaborar su ceramica y que, por tanto, sus alfareros no estaban arraigadas en las mismas comunidades de aprendizaje. No obstante, al contrario de lo que preveian los especialistas de la region, se ha podido demostrar que mantenian contactos frecuentes intercambiando sus ceramicas o moviendose de una region a otra para producirlas. Estos resultados plantean la importancia de desplazar la mirada sobre el material ceramico desde un enfoque estilistico mas clasico para considerarlo desde el punto de vista de su produccion y dar testimonio de las filiaciones y contactos entre las sociedades antiguas.

Aquatic Adaptations in Mesoamerica explores the subsistence strategies that ancient Mesoamericans implemented to survive and thrive in their environments. It discusses the natural settings, production sites, techniques, artifacts, cultural landscapes, traditional knowledge, and other features linked to human subsistence in aquatic environments. The study is based on analyses of fishing, hunting, gathering, and manufacture (among other activities), all of which were integral elements of aquatic lifeways. In addition to the aquatic lifeways themselves, salt-making, and intensive agriculture developed and practiced in lakes and marshes are also examined. The study adopts a perspective based on ethnoarchaeology and ethnohistory, complemented by archaeological field data.